Canine parvovirus 
·              Canine distemper 
·              Canine infectious hepatitis 
·              Leptospirosis 
·              Kennel cough 
o          
o           It provides a guide to the "average" age at which a puppy is no longer protected by the bitch’s immunity, and is therefore at risk. 
o           It gives an indication of the best time to start the vaccination course. 
♣                                  Timing for effective vaccination varies from puppy to puppy (because of unknown MDA levels). 
♣                                  Some vaccines, such as leptospirosis need to be administered twice in order to achieve high enough level of immunity. 
♣                                              By exposure to disease. 
♣                                              By means of a booster vaccination. 

Some commonly asked questions about vaccination -

What is immunity?

Immunity to disease simply means that an individual (animal or person) is highly resistant to a particular disease. A fully vaccinated dog, provided that it has responded to vaccinations, should be capable of withstanding normal exposure to those diseases against which it has been vaccinated.
It is possible for immunity to develop in a non-vaccinated animal, but for this to happen, the animal must first encounter the disease and then survive the encounter. For the potentially life-threatening diseases that we routinely vaccinate against, this is not a serious option. Immunity does not just happen, and yet in many ways nothing could be more natural.

Maternally Derived Antibody (MDA) -

Nature has equipped the bitch with the ability to pass on some of her own immunity (in the form of antibodies) before and shortly after giving birth. These are known as Maternally Derived Antibodies. Whilst some of this immunity passes across the placenta to the young in the later stages of pregnancy, most is passed on in the first milk, known as colostrums. It is important that puppies suck early because MDA levels in the colostrums are at their highest at the time of birth. Furthermore, the newly born puppy is only able to make best use of MDA at this precise phase. The ability to absorb antibodies directly from the gut into the bloodstream is then lost.
If all goes well, the young puppy will have received adequate "natural" maternal immunity from their mother to enable it to resist disease for a period of some weeks.
However, the extent of the protection depends on the immune status of the bitch (as she cannot pass on what she does not have), and how quickly and how well the puppies have sucked.
In turn, the immune status of the mother is nowadays highly dependent on whether she has been properly vaccinated up to date. The better protected the bitch, the more opportunity she has of passing good levels of immunity to her offspring.

How long does "natural" maternal immunity last?

Some puppies level of MDA vary from pup to pup, even in the same litter. MDA is also known as "passive" immunity, (which you may be familiar with). It is not actively produced by the puppy and decays over a period of some weeks.
It is possible to predict the point where the puppy is no longer protected through a blood test, but this is not practicable on a routine basis. Fortunately, thanks to the cooperation of many owners, a leading pharmaceutical company in the UK called Intervet has researched, (with the assistance of independent laboratories) and examined over 3,000 dogs to help to establish the timings of MDA decay for various diseases.
It is important to understand these timings because of the following reasons:

How do Vaccines Work?

Vaccines work by stimulating the body to produce its own defense against infection. One of the key components of this "defense" is antibody. Whilst MDA protects the young puppy, MDA can interfere with successful vaccinations. This is because, although a vaccine is a modified harmless form of the disease, it is seen by MDA as an invader. MDA therefore assumes it's protective role and neutralizes the vaccine.
Only when MDA falls to a moderate to low level will the puppy respond to vaccination and its role in providing protection will end.

When to give the first vaccination?

In general, the earliest age for vaccination of puppies is between 6 and 12 weeks.
It is important to note that the primary course always consists of two or more vaccinations. This is because, based upon local experience, the veterinary surgeon will advise you on the best schedule to adopt, but the aim will always be to provide your pet with the best possible protection.

Why give regular boosters?

As MDA in the puppy declines, so too does the protection produced as a result of vaccination. It becomes slower as this is "active" immunity.
A dog’s "active" immunity can be topped up in two ways:
The first, goes without saying is an impractical way of ensuring continued immunity, especially nowadays.
Vaccines today are very effective and have a remarkably high safety record. Millions of doses are used annually in the UK alone. The use of live, modified vaccines in particular have brought about levels of disease control, against for example canine parvovirus, that would have been almost undreamt of a little more than a decade ago.
As a result, the incidence of these diseases has fallen as a direct result of widespread use of efficacious vaccines. The chances of an adult dog encountering them have also been reduced. Paradoxically, this is a dangerous situation for the pet which has not had a booster on a regular basis, because the dog has not been exposed to all the diseases on a regular basis. It may be unprotected. Sooner or later an encounter with a massive disease challenge could prove fatal.

What if my dog's booster has lapsed?

If you have forgotten to take your dog back for a booster, seek advice and guidance from the vet straight away, as the longer the delay, the more at risk your dog will be. The added benefit of regular boosters are the preventative health checks given by the vet at the time of vaccination. It also gives you the opportunity to discuss any concerns about your pets well- being.
If you have any further concerns about vaccination, speak to the veterinary surgeon.

Administering Liquid Medicine 

Some drugs now come as liquids that can be given by mouth rather than as tablets or capsules. Examples are some antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, or treatment for urinary incontinence.
Some liquids can be mixed with food. If you do this, make sure that the cat has eaten all of the medication. It is best to give the liquid medication in a small amount of food and only give the remainder if the cat has eaten all the food with the drug in it.
If your cat will not eat its food with the medication mixed in, you can apply the drug directly into the mouth of your cat. To do this, the easiest way is to use a syringe, which you can get from the vet. Draw up the required dose from the bottle, approach your cat from behind, gently hold your cats head around the tops of the ears and place the nozzle of the syringe in between the lips of the cat from the side, while holding the cat's head steady and slightly lifted upwards. Gently squirt the medication into the mouth, and if necessary rub the cat's throat to induce swallowing. Have someone help you if the cat does not hold its head still.
Administering tablets

Most drug companies nowadays prepare tablets in a palatable form and are readily taken by the majority of cats. However, sometimes it takes a bit more convincing to get your cat to take its medicine! There are several ways in which you can do this.

Hiding the tablet in something nice often works. You can use soft cat treats with holes in them for example, or some tinned cat food or pate. Soft cheese or peanut butter may work for some cats. Check, if necessary, whether this type of food is suitable for your cat.
If all this fails, you will have to push the tablets into your cat's mouth. To do this, you place one hand over the muzzle and gently introduce your thumb and forefinger into the mouth by pushing the lips inwards just behind the canine teeth. You can even try to put some pressure onto the hard palate as this will help to keep the mouth opened. The other hand is then used to further open the mouth by pushing the lower jaw down and putting the tablet as far into the mouth or throat as possible. After closing the mouth, gently stroke the throat to induce swallowing. In some cases, it may be advisable to give some water afterwards to help the cat to swallow.
Some tablets can be crushed and put into food. The vet can tell you if this is possible with the tablets supplied. There are special tablet crushers available for this purpose. If you have not got access to these, you can perhaps crush a tablet with the back of a spoon.

De-Worming
Can a healthy cat get worms?

Frankly, it may not always be easy to tell when a cat has worms. In severe cases, of course symptoms are obvious.
Cats may suffer a general loss of condition, rough, dry, coat, anemia, vomiting, diarrhea and or constipation with potentially serious consequences. In case of a mild infestation, you may simply not know, and this is one case where you may remain unaware.
The majority of worms pose no threat to human health. However, there are some which can be potentially transmitted to people e.g., the roundworm toxocara canis, can be transmitted to children where it can cause potentially permanent eye damage. The results could be serious.

How could my cat get worms?

The short answer is "all too easily". Even the most cared for, well fed, happy and healthy cat can become infested with worms.
Even though you cannot see it, other cats may have left behind worm eggs and larvae. These eggs and larvae can remain infectious for months, even years. These can be picked up on your cat's coat, muzzle, or paws, and are ingested during grooming. In this way, worms can then infect your cat, home and garden.

Types of worms:

There are a dozen different species of roundworms, tapeworms, hookworms and whipworms.
Fortunately, there are very effective ways to control these and minimize the spread of infection.

Roundworms -

The term roundworm also includes, hookworms and whipworms. It is helpful to look at the different lifecycles.

Common facts:

·              It grows up to 180mm in length and can be transmitted in several different ways. 
·              Transfer of the immature worms (larvae) across the womb to the unborn kittens, so they are already infected at birth. 
·              Transfer of worm larvae to the kitten as they feed on the mother's milk. 
·              A nursing cat be re-infecting the kittens while cleaning them. 
·              Cats in the environment may accidentally pick up roundworm eggs. 
·              An adult cat may eat birds, earthworms, or mice that may be harboring roundworm larvae. 
·              Roundworm eggs are great survivors; they can remain infective for several years. 
o           Some types of tapeworm can grow up to 5 meters in length. 
o           Tapeworms look like strings of rather flattened rice grains. 
o           Dipylidium caninum has a small head, which attaches itself to the wall of the small intestine, with hooks and suckers and has a long-segmented body, which grows continuously. 
o           The oldest segments containing the eggs are shed one or more at a time. It is these segments that we commonly see passing out of the anus. 
o           These segments can contain many thousands of eggs. 
♣                                  Effective flea control should be done on the animal and in the home, to help reduce the transmission of the flea tapeworm. 
♣                                  Training your cat to defecate on the gutter or an approved cat toilet. 
♣                                  Using a poop scoop to clean up after your cat. 
♣                                  Avoidance of raw offal or unsterilized pet food. 

The tapeworm:

Unlike the roundworm, the tapeworm requires a third party called an intermediate host to develop in before infecting your cat.
The two tapeworms found commonly are the taenia species and the flea tapeworm dipylidium caninum.

Treatment:

There are many preparations available sold on the market. We recommend routinely de-worming your kitten and adult cat with the most effective preparations which are sold by your veterinary surgeon. It is only by working with your veterinary surgeon that the correct advice, preparation, dosage and routine can be given to your cat.
Preventing re-infestation:

However effective the de-wormer, it cannot prevent re-infestation. There are several steps we can take to reduce the spread of worms.

A large range of safe, efficacious, vaccines are now available to vaccinate your kitten and adult cat against the five major infectious diseases, which they can potentially suffer from. These include:

·              Canine parvovirus 
·              Canine distemper 
·              Canine infectious hepatitis 
·              Leptospirosis 
·              Kennel cough 
o          
o           It provides a guide to the "average" age at which a kitten is no longer protected by the female cat’s immunity, and is therefore at risk. 
o           It gives an indication of the best time to start the vaccination course. 
♣                                  Timing for effective vaccination varies from kitten to kitten (because of unknown MDA levels). 
♣                                  Some vaccines, such as leptospirosis need to be administered twice in order to achieve high enough level of immunity. 
♣                                              By exposure to disease. 
♣                                              By means of a booster vaccination. 

Some commonly asked questions about vaccination -

What is immunity?

Immunity to disease simply means that an individual (animal or person) is highly resistant to a particular disease. A fully vaccinated cat, provided that it has responded to vaccinations, should be capable of withstanding normal exposure to those diseases against which it has been vaccinated.
It is possible for immunity to develop in a non-vaccinated animal, but for this to happen, the animal must first encounter the disease and then survive the encounter. For the potentially life-threatening diseases that we routinely vaccinate against, this is not a serious option. Immunity does not just happen, and yet in many ways nothing could be more natural.

Maternally Derived Antibody (MDA) -

Nature has equipped the female cat with the ability to pass on some of her own immunity (in the form of antibodies) before and shortly after giving birth. These are known as Maternally Derived Antibodies. Whilst some of this immunity passes across the placenta to the young in the later stages of pregnancy, most is passed on in the first milk, known as colostrums. It is important that kittens suck early because MDA levels in the colostrums are at their highest at the time of birth. Furthermore, the newly born kitten is only able to make best use of MDA at this precise phase. The ability to absorb antibodies directly from the gut into the bloodstream is then lost.
If all goes well, the young kitten will have received adequate "natural" maternal immunity from their mother to enable it to resist disease for a period of some weeks.
However, the extent of the protection depends on the immune status of the female cat (as she cannot pass on what she does not have), and how quickly and how well the kittens have sucked.
In turn, the immune status of the mother is nowadays highly dependent on whether she has been properly vaccinated up to date. The better protected the mother cat, the more opportunity she has of passing good levels of immunity to her offspring.

How long does "natural" maternal immunity last?

Some kittens’ level of MDA vary from kitten to kitten, even in the same litter. MDA is also known as "passive" immunity, (which you may be familiar with). It is not actively produced by the kitten and decays over a period of some weeks.
It is possible to predict the point where the kitten is no longer protected through a blood test, but this is not practicable on a routine basis. Fortunately, thanks to the cooperation of many owners, a leading pharmaceutical company in the UK called Intervet has researched, (with the assistance of independent laboratories) and examined over 3,000 cats to help to establish the timings of MDA decay for various diseases.
It is important to understand these timings because of the following reasons:

How do Vaccines Work?

Vaccines work by stimulating the body to produce its own defense against infection. One of the key components of this "defense" is antibody. Whilst MDA protects the young kitten, MDA can interfere with successful vaccinations. This is because, although a vaccine is a modified harmless form of the disease, it is seen by MDA as an invader. MDA therefore assumes it's protective role and neutralizes the vaccine.
Only when MDA falls to a moderate to low level will the kitten respond to vaccination and its role in providing protection will end.

When to give the first vaccination?

In general, the earliest age for vaccination of kittens is between 6 and 12 weeks.
It is important to note that the primary course always consists of two or more vaccinations. This is because, based upon local experience, the veterinary surgeon will advise you on the best schedule to adopt, but the aim will always be to provide your pet with the best possible protection.

Why give regular boosters?

As MDA in the kitten declines, so too does the protection produced as a result of vaccination. It becomes slower as this is "active" immunity.
A cat’s "active" immunity can be topped up in two ways:
The first, goes without saying is an impractical way of ensuring continued immunity, especially nowadays.
Vaccines today are very effective and have a remarkably high safety record. Millions of doses are used annually in the UK alone. The use of live, modified vaccines in particular have brought about levels of disease control, against for example canine parvovirus, that would have been almost undreamt of a little more than a decade ago.
As a result, the incidence of these diseases has fallen as a direct result of widespread use of efficacious vaccines. The chances of an adult cat encountering them have also been reduced. Paradoxically, this is a dangerous situation for the pet which has not had a booster on a regular basis, because the cat has not been exposed to all the diseases on a regular basis. It may be unprotected. Sooner or later an encounter with a massive disease challenge could prove fatal.

What if my cat's booster has lapsed?

If you have forgotten to take your cat back for a booster, seek advice and guidance from the vet straight away, as the longer the delay, the more at risk your cat will be. The added benefit of regular boosters are the preventative health checks given by the vet at the time of vaccination. It also gives you the opportunity to discuss any concerns about your pets well- being.
If you have any further concerns about vaccination, speak to the veterinary surgeon.

Microchip Identification 

When we bring a new cat into the family, we love and care for them the same way we do for the rest of the family members. The love and fear we feel for them is no different. If your cat was lost, strayed or worse, still stolen, and your pet was not identified, it would be very difficult to trace you and be returned.

There are different ways of identification such as collars and tags or tattooing. Unfortunately, these methods have their drawbacks. Collars can become lost and tattooing is a painful process, which over time becomes illegible.
However, a quick and simple permanent process is now available, which is no more stressful than a routine vaccination.

What is micro chipping?
Micro chipping is an up to date electronic technology, which is a tiny microchip containing a unique 15-digit code. This code will be linked to your pets’ details for life on a database. The database is accessible 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, and it can identify your animal, your name, address and telephone to ensure you and your cat can be reunited in the shortest time possible.
A special scanner is then used by a number of authorities to read the microchip, including:

·              Local authorities 
·             
·              Veterinary
·             
·              Surgeons 

How does it work?

Your cat will attend the veterinary surgery for the micro chipping implantation to take place the same way as you would for a normal vaccination.
The microchip is injected under the loose skin at the back of the neck. It is usually no bigger than a grain of rice. We will then fill in all of your details and send it to the database for life.
For more information, please contact us for advice.

Flea Control 

Fleas can potentially pose a very real threat to your cat's health and the well-being of your family. Few creatures can inflict more misery, ounce for ounce, than fleas. A flea infestation at one time or another has affected many dog and cat households. These tiny, almost invisible pests are much more than an annoyance. They make life miserable by disrupting your household with a vicious cycle of biting and scratching, and can cause flea allergy dermatitis in some cats.

Where do fleas hide?

Fleas hop onto your cat to feed on his/her blood; they then lay their eggs, which can be up to 50 a day. The eggs are not very sticky, so they quickly fall off your pet. The fleas and their eggs can be found in numerous flea friendly locations, such as:
·             
·              Carpets 
·             
·              Furniture 
·             
·              The Car 
·             
·              The animals' own bedding 
·             
·              Vacuum cleaners 

These areas should be treated, when treating your cat for fleas.

The flea’s life cycle:

The life cycle of a common flea can last as little as three weeks, depending on the temperature and humidity of their surroundings. It is little wonder that with the introduction of fitted carpets and central heating to a lot of homes, the flea problem has increased over the years. However, it is important to note that fleas can also live in wooden floor boards, so always be alert for the presence of fleas, even if you don't have carpet flooring.
For more information, please contact the veterinary surgery for advice.

The Egg Stage:

A female flea lays as many as 50 eggs per day. They quickly fall off your cat and hatch in two to five days. A female flea lays around 2,000 eggs in her lifetime.

The Laval Stage:

After hatching, the larvae head toward dark places around your home and feed on "flea dirt" - excrement of the partially digested blood of your cat. The larvae grow; moult twice, then spin cocoons, where they grow into pupae.

The Pupa Stage:

The length of this stage averages 8 to 9 days. Depending on weather conditions, population explosions typically occur five to six weeks after the weather starts to warm up.

The Adult Stage:

The adults emerge from their cocoons when they detect heat, vibrations and exhaled carbon dioxide, indicating that there is a host nearby. Once they hop onto a host, the adults mate and begin the life cycle all over again. The entire life cycle can be as short as three to four weeks.

Identifying flea infestation -

The warning signs:

Black specks

Black specks on your cat or his/her bedding could be flea dirt, which are the feces of partially digested blood from your dog, excreted by the adult fleas. They can often be found around the neck area and the base of the cat’s tail.

There are two easy ways to check for flea dirt:

One is using a metal flea comb, available from the veterinary practice. Run the comb over your pet, making sure the comb reaches the cat’s skin through the coat. If there are black specks on the comb they may be flea dirt.

The second way is placing a white paper towel beneath your cat and rub your hands across the fur. If black specks appear on the towel, they may be flea dirt. Both of these methods may be used to confirm if the specks are flea dirt.

Place the specks on a white piece of paper. Then sprinkle a few drops of water on the specks, and if after a couple of minutes a reddish-brown stain is seen in the water, it will indicate that the dirt contains partially digested blood from your cat. This is flea dirt.

Agitation/Scratching:

Your cat may exhibit nervous or annoyed behavior, coupled with excessive scratching and or grooming. Your cat may even start to bite him/herself, which not only confirms the presence of fleas, but also may indicate that the presence of fleas may be affecting your cat’s health. (See ailments below).

Ailments -

Fleas may affect your cat in the following ways:

Flea Allergy Dermatitis (FAD) -

When a flea bites your cat, it deposits a small amount of saliva onto the skin. Your cat can develop FAD in reaction to this saliva, which causes severe itching. The condition can cause excessive scratching, biting, redness, soreness and even hair loss and scabby regions, especially over the cat’s neck, back, and the base of the tail. You and your family may also suffer from flea bites.

Anemia -

This may occur in younger, older, or ill cat if too many fleas suck their blood. The symptoms of anemia include pale gums, weakness, and lethargy in your pet.

Treatment and prevention:

There are many flea treatments sold today, but not all of them can be effective or appropriate for your cat, and although it may appear to be cheaper, you may end up spending more in the long run. Today however, products sold by veterinary practices to treat flea infestation are extremely effective and safe, (if the manufacturer’s instructions are followed).
There are a number of presentations available, including:
Sprays, spot-on's, or oral treatments, and consulting our veterinary practice concerning the best treatment for your cat.
Only 5% of the flea population will be on your cat, so separate environmental treatment of wherever your cat has been is also vital in preventing re-infestation.

Other preventative methods include:

Vacuuming frequently, wherever your cat has been, especially around any carpeted area of the home, in your car, in and around your cat’s bedding, along with your bedding, if he/she sleeps with you. This will help to clean up as many immature fleas (eggs, larvae and pupae) as possible. Another piece of advice would be to treat your vacuum cleaners’ nozzle as well, then disposing the bag or treat inside the cleaner with environmental treatments.

Washing your cat’s bedding, blanket and other washable items frequently in the hottest water cycle available.

Dental Health 

We all understand that to maintain healthy teeth and gums, a combination of daily brushing and regular visits to the dentist is essential. The same is true for our cats. Research shows that more than 80% of cats show some signs of gum disease by the age of five. Therefore, it is really important that your pet receives both professional dental care form the veterinary surgeon and care from you at home.

The importance of preventative care:

During each check-up, your dentist thoroughly cleans your teeth and removes plaque, which can build up, causing serious oral problems. Plaque forms naturally and continuously on teeth and gums, and is the cause of bad breath, which is an early symptom of poor oral health. If the plaque is left untreated, inflamed gums or "gingivitis" can result. In time, this disease can lead to periodontitis (a disease of the tissues which support and attach the tooth) and tooth loss. That is why it is important to start a preventative dental care program as soon as possible.
Try these three simple steps program for your new kitten or cat.

Step one:

Professional examination

An effective program of dental care begins with a visit here, and we will assess your pet's oral health and may recommend cleaning, polishing and other preventative measures.

Step two:

Home care

Plaque should be removed mechanically every day, and until recently, daily brushing of your cat's teeth was the most effective way to do this. It is best to start this as early on in your cat's routine as possible. There are many specialized toothbrushes and doggie (They copied this Yasmeen from the dog section, so don’t know what is the equivalent here) toothpaste available to assist you in this routine. It is advised not to use human toothpaste as this can potentially cause detrimental harm to your cat’s health. Fortunately, there are now special daily diets available from Royal Canin (This was copied from the dog section, so don’t know what can be said here?) which provide the same dental benefits as weekly brushing, and actually clean teeth and freshen breath on every bite. Please consult the veterinary surgeon for advice on all of these procedures.

Step three:

Regular check-ups

Just as people need to see their dentist regularly, cats also need regular check-ups. At each oral examination, your veterinary surgeon will look for any signs of plaque build-up and gum disease.

Post-operative guide 

When the operation is over and your pet is waking up from its anesthetic, your pet will be drowsy and looking sorry for itself. It may have bandages and an Elizabethan collar fitted. Although you may be very anxious to see your pet as soon as possible and get them home, it is advisable to speak to the veterinary nurse or veterinary surgeon prior to seeing your pet. This will enable a complete and thorough post-operative set of instructions to be given to you. A check-up appointment can be scheduled and the account settled. It is also an ideal time for you to ask any questions that you have thought of during the day.
Instructions for post-operative care will vary from surgery to surgery and will depend on the type of surgical procedure your pet has undergone. However, some basic guidelines are set out below. 
Once you are happy you have listened to the set of instructions, you may now have your pet back and can give him/her your full attention. It will be your responsibility in performing the post-operative care yourself, and not forgetting tender loving care in the comfort of your own home. However, if you run into any problems, we are always here to help.
Following this protocol, your pet should make an uneventful recovery and return to the practice for a check-up and suture removal.

Post-operative care –

·              Your pet is likely to be drowsy for 24 to 36 hours. Keep your pet in a comfortable bed/basket, away from draughts and noise. 
·              Vomiting may occur in the immediate post-operative period. Light palatable meals, given little and often, can help reduce the likelihood of this. If vomiting occurs, consult your vet. 
·              Exercise should be restricted until any sutures are removed. Cats must be kept indoors for at least 24 hours post-operatively (castrates only) and dogs must be exercised on a lead only. 
·              Check the wound daily. There is no need for you to bathe the wound, but it is very important that you prevent your pet licking it. Licking of a surgical wound can cause inflammation and introduce infection which may necessitate further medication. The pet may try to remove sutures while licking, which could mean another general anesthetic to replace them. Elizabethan collars, Bite-Not-Collars, or bandages are ways of preventing self-mutilation (inquire at the surgery for any of these). 
·              Bandages should be kept clean and dry. They must be checked daily for signs of swelling above or below the bandage, or seepages/discharges and so on. If at all concerned, contact your vet. 
·              Ensure medication is given at the stated dosage, and that the course is completed. 

If you become at all concerned about your pet's health during the post-operative period, do not hesitate to contact your vet.

Pre-operative guide  

Unless otherwise instructed, these are rules for your pet when coming in for any procedure at the surgery.

Do not give your pet food or milk after 8 pm evening prior to admission. 
Water can be freely available overnight until first thing in the morning, when you should take up the water bowl. 
Dogs should be taken for a brief controlled walk in the morning to pass motions, and have a pee if they need to. Avoid scavenging, and try to avoid them getting wet or dirty. 
Cats should be kept indoors overnight and have a litter tray. This is to ensure that they do not help themselves to food outside.  
Please bring your pet to the surgery at the appointed time. Announce yourself to the receptionist, and you will be asked to take a seat in the waiting room. The admissions nurse will then call you in.  
If you have accidentally broken any of the above rules, please telephone the surgery or tell the admissions nurse. If you have anything you want to discuss before admission, then telephone the receptionist before you come down for an appointment to be made with one of the vets, or speak to the admissions nurse.  
If your pet is likely to require any regular medication or special diet whilst in the surgery, please bring these with you.  
Remember to always have your dog on a lead, or your cat (or ferret) in a secure cat carrier/basket.

PAIN CONTROL IN DOGS AND CATS

Non-steroid anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) are the fastest growing category of veterinary medicines. At the AVH we use them to manage acute or chronic pain, to reduce inflammation, and to lower high fevers. Surprisingly, we also use them to slow the growth of certain forms of cancer, such as bladder cancer.

NSAIDs are divided into three ‘generations’. Broadly speaking, aspirin is first generation. Carprofen (Rimadyl) and meloxicam (Metacam) are second generation, and firocoxib (Previcox), mavacoxib (Trocoxil) and robenacoxib (Onsior) are third generation.

NSAIDs can produce unwanted side-effects, specifically stomach irritation, even ulceration. The second and third generation NSAIDs were developed to reduce gastric toxicity in humans. They did so but were also associated with fatal heart complications in people, due to atherosclerosis. This condition is virtually unknown in dogs and cats so it is not a major problem. 

An alternative that we are presently trialing is robenacoxib (Onsior). Its mechanism of action suggests that it may have a longer duration of action and fewer side effects than second generation NSAIDs. Its high safety index applies to cats as well as dogs. Meloxicam (Metacam) and robenacoxib are the only NSAIDs licensed for use in cats.

Mavacoxib (Trocoxil) is unique in that it has an extremely long half-life. This means that a tablet needs only to be given once a month. We worried that if a dog had a toxic reaction to mavacoxib, that reaction would be prolonged because of the drug’s very long half-life, but that has not proven to be the case. In reality, if vomiting, for example occurs, it occurs for no longer than it does for other NSAIDs.

SAFE USE OF NSAIDS
We select NSAIDs for their safety, efficacy, ease of giving, and cost. The most common side effects are gastrointestinal, although kidney and liver problems are also possible. Unwanted side effects are most commonly associated with:
Too great a dose for the dog or cat’s body weight.
Used together with another NSAID.
Used together with corticosteroids.
Accumulation of the drug in the body because or dehydration, kidney or liver dysfunction, or other health issues.

HOW WE USE NSAIDs
We routinely use NSAIDs both during and after surgery to reduce pain. This is one reason we always give intravenous fluids to any surgical individual who may become dehydrated.
We routinely use NSAIDs (together with weight management, joint nutrients and controlled exercise) for dogs and cats with osteoarthritis. We are happy to provide repeat prescriptions, but need to see your dog or cat at least once every six months, often for a blood test for liver and kidney function and signs of dehydration, before providing further  medication.

WHAT ABOUT THE SLOW RESPONDER?

Each NSAID has its own mechanism of action. It’s frustrating, but if one NSAID does not reduce your dog or cat’s osteoarthritic pain, the best course is through trial and error to try another.  We usually like an internal of three to five days between finishing one NSAID and starting another. If we are stopping an NSAID because your pet has experienced an unwanted side effect, we stop until we are satisfied that any pathological changes have been resolved. We provide an alternative method of pain control during this internal matter.

CATS AND NSAIDs

Kidney disease is much more common in cats than in dogs. Osteoarthritis, on the other hand, is equally common in both species. This means that very accurate dosing is vital as is routine monitoring of kidney function. Because it is in liquid form, we prefer meloxicam (Metacam) as it is easiest both to dose accurately and to give to cats.

OTHER DRUGS WE USE FOR OSTEOARTHRITIS

For long term management of osteoarthritic pain in dogs, we use a ‘multi-mode’ approach. In addition to weight control, nutritional supplements and controlled exercise, we initially use NSAIDs. However, if this combination is not as effective as we want, we frequently add pain killers (analgesics) licensed for use in humans that are also used extensively in dogs. 

We use tramadol when pain affects your dog’s mood or behavior. Lameness may not diminish but your cat seems happier even though it still limps. The most common side effect from tramadol is mild sedation.

We use gabapentin if we suspect neurological pain. Since it is metabolized by the liver and eliminated by the kidneys, we usually run a routine blood sample before starting a course. As with tramadol, the most common side effect is mild sedation. NSAIDs, tramadol, and gabapentin appear safe to use alongside each other.

Paracetemol is generally safe for dogs, BUT HIGHLY TOXIC TO CATS. On its own, it is not a very potent analgesic, but when combined with an NSAID or tramadol, it can be an effective pain killer. Paracetemol should be avoided with any dog that has liver problems.

Caring for your older cat:

Older Cat Care

Aging is not a disease, it is a natural normal life process. It is however, accompanied by wear and tear on the body. Today with the advances in veterinary medicine, improvements in nutrition, vaccination, and our own understanding of excellence in pet ownership and medical care, our cats are living longer.

When is my cat considered to be elderly?

Life expectancy in cats ranges from breed to breed, genetic influences, lifestyle and surprisingly, we should start to manage the aging process in our cats earlier than we once thought. As described above, wear and tear and the bodies deceasing ability to repair itself, accompany ageing. However, it is not all bad news, because we now understand when the ageing process starts to affect our cat's health and can start to minimize the progressive deterioration and maintain or improve our cat's quality of life.
As a general rule, an elderly preventative medicine regime could begin at the following stage:
Cats - 7 years

What can I do to help my aging
cat?

Fortunately, we can assist our cat through his/her golden years in many ways, and it is much easier to care for the older cat than the older human. Below is a list of tips you may wish to follow for your older cat:
Respect by all members of the family, including other pets and children. Do not allow them to bother your older cat, as his/her patience may be wearing thin and he/she could become less tolerant as they get older. 
If your cat’s sight and hearing is deteriorating, do stick to her normal routine. Do not move furniture around, and keep her feeding routine to a regular time and place each day. 
Regular exercise is important to maintain bone strength and muscle tone. However, your cat may have a locomotive problem such as arthritis, degenerative joint disease, or just have difficulty on standing up. If this is the case, you may have to adjust or limit his/her access outside. Speak to the vet, who will advise you. 
Be understanding to them if they do fail to respond to you, hear you, or have little accidents. 
Keep their bedding comfortable or warm. If they are used to sleeping outside on hard concrete surfaces, consider bringing them indoors on softer bedding. They are more prone to developing sores, or hard callous on their joints, such as elbows or hocks. These can become extremely painful or ulcerated. 
Keep them clean and groomed more regularly, as they may have difficulties in grooming themselves. It is also an ideal time to notice any changes or abnormalities. 
Keep their nails trimmed short. You may have to have them clipped more regularly. 

Preventative health care programs:

You have the opportunity to work with the veterinary surgeon. To establish a preventative health care program for your cat, properly applied, a preventative health care program can lessen existing problems of aging, slow or prevent disease processes, and add high-quality years to your cat’s life.

Preventative health care measures:

Measures we can take ourselves to support our cats in their older years are as follows:
Take him/her for a regular check up at the veterinary practice, at least twice a year. 
Keep their vaccinations up to date, as their immune response starts to decline in later years. Keeping up with vaccinations are just as important as later on in their lives. 
Regular teeth cleaning, scaling and polishing, to help prevent against bad breath and dental disease - see dental care. 
It is also useful to use the following checklist to monitor any changes in your cat's health status. Take this along to the veterinary surgeon with a urine sample when you attend any appointment, to assist them in the program.

Nutrition for the older cat:

Nutrition plays a vital part of the process of preventative health measures, and commercially produced foods contain more than the adequate levels of all essential nutrients needed by normal cats. In fact, cats fed commercial foods are consuming anywhere between three to five times their daily protein requirement, three times their daily calcium requirement, phosphorus requirement, and ten times their daily requirement of salt. The older cat, on the other hand would, benefit from a diet with reduced levels of protein, calcium, phosphorus and sodium. This kind of diet may be helpful in the onset of clinical diseases common in older pets. Also keep a close eye on your cat’s weight. As cats grow older, they are more prone to weight gain due to a reduction in exercise and their ability to metabolize energy is reduced. Speak to the vet who will advise you on the correct food for your cat at his/her stage of life.

Training your cat and using commands like “SIT”:

Cat Training 

You may have noticed that your cat has worked out. It trots or even runs to the kitchen to the noise of its food container being opened. It has trained itself. For those of you familiar with dog training but who have never tried to train a cat there, it is a fundamental fact. A cat’s a cat, not a dog that purrs! Dogs may respond to verbal discipline but confident cats respond wonderfully only to rewards, primarily food but also to toys or access to pleasure. Cats with little confidence are extremely difficult either to obedience train or train to play games.
 
Start Young
As with our kids, the very young are most open to learning. Adult cats can certainly be trained but it takes a little more understanding of all their feelings and emotions, and they usually need to unlearn doing what they’re already doing before learning what you want to teach them. Start training as soon as your kitten joins your household. Train in a small, quiet room, just before mealtimes, or just after awakening and without other animals present. Keep training sessions short, no more than two or three minutes per session.
 
Use 'Motivators' 
  
Most kittens are motivated by food rewards, but with older cats it can be a challenge to find out exactly what’s powerful enough to drive it to perform. Freeze-dried liver treats are a good starting point and there are various commercial food treats to try. We have a range of treats at the clinic and in our on-line shop. Whatever you use, don’t be excessive with the rewards. If you’re using your cat’s regular dry food, remember to include these when measuring its daily rations. It sounds harsh, but if treats don’t motivate your cat, skip its meals for a day. A healthy cat will come to no harm if it goes without food for 24 to 48 hours, as long as it drinks. When food doesn’t do the trick, find the type of toy that tickles its interest. Soft furries do it for some while catnip toys do it for others. 

Never Punish 
  
Punishment is pointless. Giving a cat a shake if you catch it chewing on your houseplants or jumping onto the kitchen work surface may satisfy your need to vent your anger but all it will do with your cat is make it worry more about what you plan to do when you touch it. The same goes with shrieking and screaming at it. The more you use punishment, the more likely your cat will simply view you as a weirdo and avoid your touch, and even your presence.
 
Divine intervention is different. Divine intervention doesn’t come from you, it is a direct result of what the cat just did. For example, a cat jumps onto the kitchen work surface, lands on double sided sticky tape, doesn’t like the feel and instantly jumps off. A cat jumps on a bed, through an infra-red beam from a tiny burglar alarm that sets off a siren, doesn’t like the sound and escapes from the bedroom. A cat is about to scratch the sofa and – silently – gets a shot of water in its face from a water pistol. All these are, from a cat’s perspective, ‘acts of God’, not punishment from you. Your aim in associating what it is doing with something mildly unpleasant is to train it in ‘avoidance’. All feral cats learn through experience how to avoid dangers. Be creative but always be kind with your use of ‘divine intervention’. Your aim is to train your cat to abandon whatever it wants to do because it’s unexpectedly unpleasant, but never painful.

A Hiss Is Useful

A short, sharp hiss can be a simple way to stop a cat in its tracks long enough for you to put it off what it’s planning to do. Has your cat caught sight of a songbird in the grass? A sharp hiss, or any other noise, should distract it long enough for the bird to fly away or for you to get your cat. A hiss is part of a cat’s verbal repertoire. Use it sparingly, otherwise your cat will learn it means nothing.
 
Understand Cat Logic 

You pick up the cat comb and your cat vanishes. You get out the cat carrier and your cat vanishes. Cats are always learning and we can be very, very slow in realizing what’s happening. If combing tangled hair hurt the last time, it’s natural your cat will want to avoid that happening again. If your cat was frightened by a car trip and then a visit to some nasty stranger who stared close up at it, squished its belly and felt its joints then, as often happens, stabbed it in the back with something sharp, it will want to avoid a repeat of that too. Don’t try reasoning with your cat. None of us have ever met a single cat that understands conditional sentences. Instead try associating unpleasant objects with positives. Leave the cat carrier always open, with comfortable bedding in it, perhaps even a few food treats. Groom your cat in different locations, not always the same place, and give potent rewards before and after.

Have Patience and be Realistic

While dogs respond well to food and then verbal rewards, cats are different. It can be difficult to bribe a cat. 
Put some thought into exactly what your cat enjoys most – being stroked – fresh prawns – a feather on a string – a warm spot to lie in – and use access to the most potent reward in your cat’s training.
Be realistic with your expectations. Progress a step at a time and have clear goals for what you want your cat to achieve.
If you sense your cat is restless or not enjoying the session, stop and try again later.
If your cat is fearful, don’t even try training until its fear has reduced to a point where it is willing to eat with you right beside its food bowl.
 
Clicker Training Needs Perfect Timing

Clicker training involves using a small plastic clicker device that makes a clicking sound when you press it. 

That click sound acts as a bridge between your command and the reward. Since the click sound is associated with your cat getting a reward, it learns to enjoy hearing that sound. Clicker training speeds up learning as long as your timing is perfect. Give a food reward and as it is taken, click the clicker. Soon the sound becomes almost as important as the reward. An alternative we have used with our cats is to say its name when it takes a food treat. Soon, all you need to do is say its name and you have her attention. Timing is absolutely critical. 

Nervous Cats Are Difficult to Train

Cats that were not humanized as kittens, ‘habituated’ to use the trainer’s term, to interacting with us, find it difficult to differentiate between threatening situations and harmless activities. These fearful cats find new experiences frightening. It is not just cats that didn’t have lots of contact with us before they were seven weeks old, or cats raised by inexperienced mothers that produce a new generation of nervous individuals. We’ve known cats, born to competent mothers, raised in warm and caring human families that still mature into adults with nervous dispositions. Whatever the reason for their nervousness, these sweet, worried individuals spend their lives avoiding challenges. To them, your trying to train them is a challenge.

When presented with a new challenge, the introverted, or nervous or fearful cat will do one of two things. It either hunkers down, sits motionless and, as it were, buries its head in the sand, pretending that nothing is happening. Hoping if it doesn’t move, the challenge – you asking it to do something – will go away, or it darts away and hides. Most cat owners we know find this distressing and many respond as we would if our kids behaved this way, with cuddles and reassurance. Unfortunately, that rarely works. Don’t do it. An anxious cat wants to be left alone, either crouched frozen in its corner or under whatever furniture it has found. Leave it there. Put a few of its favorite food treats near it and leave the room. Your continuing presence will only be regarded as a continuing challenge, especially if you look directly at the fearful cat. Forget about any type of training until your nervous cat is relaxed enough to allow you to be in the same room while it eats, then closer to the food bowl and, if you’re really lucky, beside it while it eats.
 
All Cats Need Some Training 

Your cat doesn’t just depend on you for food, shelter and health care. House-bound cats in particular also depend on you for their education, for instructions in how to live enjoyably with us. Even though cats are ‘low maintenance’ compared to dogs, they still need basic training instructions. It’s worth repeating. Train when your cat is alert and hungry. For example, just after it has awakened, and before meals. Once you have successfully taught ‘come,’ you might find that training is easier than you expected, and a whole lot more fun. If that’s the case, we’ve also included ideas for a variety of other activities to train your cat to do.
 
‘Target’ Training

This is simple and fun. What you’re doing is training your cat to follow a target – your hand or a short stick – in the same way it would follow more exciting things, like mice! You just show your cat a toy or a treat in your hand and when it touches its nose to it, you instantly praise with soft friendly words (like ‘Good Milly’) and give your cat the treat. Once your cat understands that it has to touch its nose to the treat – and this is learned fast by some cats and much slower by others, continue to give immediate verbal praise to the nose touch but start delaying the food or toy reward. Soon, just your words of praise will be enough. We suggest you use two different types of targets, your extended hand and another item such as a stick the length of a typical ruler with a treat at the end.
When using your hand as the target, present the food treat with fingers below and thumb above. Overly excited cats might bite your fingers if the food treat is too tempting, so take care. If you think there’s a risk, use the stick with the food treat on the tip.
 
Use Distinctive Sound Signals 
  
Choose a sound signal to get your cat’s attention, for example calling your cat’s name or giving a hand clap or blowing a whistle or a combination of your cat’s name and another signal. Don’t rely on a signaling device such as a bell or a shaken pot of vitamin tablets alone. You may not always have the sound maker at hand. Use a signal you can always make wherever you are, indoors or outdoors. A sound maker is fine as a secondary signal, something that reinforces your words, clap or whistle. For example, call Milly by her name, and combine that with making a shaking sound with the pot of vitamin tablets she craves. That means that at night, when you want your cat in, you don’t have to shout its name and disturb your neighbors, but rather just shake the vitamin container.

"Come" 
  
Once your cat shows consistent interest in a treat in your hand (or on a target stick), you can start active training. Show your cat the treat and praise it for showing attention. As it touches its nose to the target move, your hand towards you and say ‘Milly come’. As your cat comes towards you say ‘good come,’ and as it reaches you, give the reward. It doesn’t take much time for your cat to associate the word ‘come’ with its moving forward and getting a food treat. If your cat always comes when called, reward it less frequently. Intermittent rewards are better for reliable training. If your cat is less interested in responding to your command, reward it every single time until it comes consistently, then start rewarding less often.

(If you’re using a clicker, click when your cat first noses the treat and click again when it reaches your hand and is given its reward. At first have your cat come only 10 centimeters (4 inches) but gradually increase this. Back yourself up each time you increase the distance. Your cat will see what you’re doing and take it as a visual clue about what it should do. After a few sessions, your cat will come from across the room and with several training sessions each day, within less than a week will come from another room or anywhere in the house it can hear its name and your request to ‘come’.
 
Speak Training 
  
Indoor cats not familiar with the outdoors are likely to get frightened and hide if they wander outside. Others do things they regret, like climb trees then up in the branches become ‘scaredy’ cats unwilling to climb down. Yet others will find themselves in places like cellars they can’t get out of. It’s much easier to find a lost or hiding cat if it has been trained to meow back when it hears its name called. If your cat is a natural talker, training is quite easy. You’re simply channeling a natural behavior. Training is much harder if your cat is not naturally verbal.

Have treats handy and when your cat speaks without your asking it to, say “Milly speak”. As it does, so give the treat. Evolve this to intermittent rewards and within a few days your cat will ‘speak’ when it hears your command, ‘Milly speak.” Take care if your cat is already loquacious. If it’s a constant talker, a typical Siamese trait, and that gets on your nerves, don’t train it to speak or do so because you want to then train it to be quiet. Remember, any behavior you reward, including meowing will increase if that behavior is rewarded.
Once you’ve trained your cat to speak on command, you may want to train it to be quiet. Do this by requesting ‘Milly speak’ to your already trained talkative cat but don’t give any reward. Instead redirect its attention to something else such as a thrown toy. When your cat interacts with the diversion, give verbal or food treat praise

 "Sit" 
  
Hold the food treat in your hand at nose level and lift it up and back over your cat’s head. As its head goes back to keep its nose in line with your hand, it will naturally sit. As it does so say ‘sit’ and as soon as it sits, give the food treat. If your cat stands on its hind legs to reach your hand you’re holding the treat too high. Just skim your hand a couple of centimeters over your cat’s head. If your cat backs up to keep its nose near your hand, do this training in the corner of a room where it can’t back up.
 
"Stay" 

‘Stay’ training naturally follows once ‘sit’ or ‘lie down’ training is reliable. Instead of immediately rewarding a ‘sit’, say ‘stay’ and give the reward. Put another treat in your hand in front of your cat’s nose, say ‘stay’ again but now wait two seconds before giving the treat.

Gradually increase the interval, seconds at a time, between the request ‘stay’ and the reward. If your cat doesn’t ‘stay,’ go back to a ‘sit’ and when it complies, end the training session and try again when its more in the mood. Eventually you should be able to get your cat to ‘sit-stay’ or ‘lie down-stay’ for more than a minute.
Cats find constant corrections annoying so avoid frequent lifting and returning your cat to where you want it. Be patient. Go back a step when needed, or after a short ‘stay’ add a ‘come’ before your cat thinks about leaving the ‘stay’. Some cats learn to ‘stay’ better on raised surfaces such as tables than they do on the floor.
 
"Lie Down" 
  
Start with your cat in a ‘sit’ and let your cat nose the treat but rather than giving it, lower your hand (or stick target) to the ground between your cat’s paws. As its nose follows the treat, slide your hand back towards you. Your cat will slide one foot forward, then the other, and as it drops to the floor say ‘lie down’. Try ‘lie down’ training in front of a bar such as the side of a chair that is too low for your cat to walk under. Let it nose the food then withdraw your hand under the bar of the chair, necessitating your cat to drop its head and its body to follow the treat. Once its head is under the bar, let it nose the treat then give it.
 
"Jump" 
  
Cats love climbing and jumping so this is easy for your cat to learn and impressive when showing off to friends.

Place two chairs with non-slip surfaces about 25 cm (10 inches) apart and put your cat on one of the chairs. Show the treat then withdraw your hand until it is over the other chair. Your cat will follow (walking) and when it noses the treat give the reward. Repeat this with the chairs a bit further apart until they are sufficiently separated to need a jump. As it jumps, say ‘Milly jump,’ then instantly give the reward in your hand and maybe one more. If you want to turn this into circus training, add a hoop.

Spaying queens and castrating Tom cats are the most common surgical procedures we routinely undertake. There are advantages and disadvantages to both procedures.

Castrating Males
Castration is the removal of the testicles through a relatively small single incision so small that sutures are rarely used. Medical ‘superglue’ is sometimes applied to the incision. The cat goes home later that day with pain control medication to obliterate any post- surgical discomfort. Most cats resume their normal routines the next day but don’t let your cat outdoors until a week later, when the wound has completely repaired.
Reasons for castrating male cats are social rather than medical. The neutered male cat population doesn’t live any longer, on average, than the un-neutered population. That’s because life-threatening conditions involving the male reproductive organs – malignant cancers or uncontrollable hormonal or microbial conditions – are uncommon. Malignant testicular or prostate cancers specifically are rare in cats compared to men. Cats are castrated primarily because we find the smell of un-neutered Tom cat urine repellant and we don’t want our cats to spray it in our homes or gardens.

Advantages Of Castration
Castration reduces or eliminates three behaviors; male to male aggression, urine spraying and wandering. A neutered Tom cat stays closer to home and is less likely to cross roads. 

Disadvantages Of Castration
In one out of every three or four cats, castration alters energy balance enough to lead to weight gain, unless the energy level of the diet is reduced. If your cat is castrated, we recommend reducing the quantity of food anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent, or switching to a ‘neutered cat’ variety of food.
It's Your Choice
Whether or not to castrate male cats is as much a cultural decision as it is a medical one. In North America and Northern Europe, it’s the norm. In Southern Europe, it’s less common. Our advice is that male hormone can be beneficial as well as a nuisance. However, the odor it gives to urine (in most but not all Tom cats) is offensive to the human nose. Un-neutered Tom cats roam, and the farther they roam, the greater the risk of trauma. We recommend that outdoor Tom cats are neutered for their own well-being, and to control the surplus cat population. We also recommend neutering indoor Toms to ensure they are contented living indoors.

Spaying Females
‘Spaying’ is the surgical removal of the female reproductive organs. Historically, in the Anglo-Saxon world, this has meant the removal of the two ovaries and the uterus – an ‘ovariohysterectomy’. When vets talk about spaying, in most circumstances we’re talking about an ‘ovariohysterectomy’.

Advantages of Spaying
Reasons for spaying female cats are both medical and social. Females can develop a variety of medical conditions – cancers and infections in particular – that are life threatening. Removing the source of female hormone early in life eliminates or dramatically reduces those risks. The result is that the spayed cat population (spayed early in life) lives longer than the ‘intact’ female population.
Spaying eliminates the female hormonal reproductive cycle. The spayed female does not undergo the dramatic behavior changes of estrus – caterwauling and dragging herself around as if her rump has its own mind and mentality.

Disadvantages of Spaying
In one out of every three or four cats, spaying alters energy balance enough to lead to weight gain, unless the energy level of the diet is reduced. When your cat is spayed, we suggest reducing the quantity of her food anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent, or switching to a ‘neutered cat’ variety of food.
Coat length and texture are both associated with sex hormone. As a general rule, male sex hormone enhances hair growth, so males are hairier than females. The skin on their necks and forelimbs is thicker after neutering, as the females have male hormones (she produces male hormones in her adrenal gland), and may affect her coat, which can grow thicker and more luxurious. 

Ovariectomy Is a Less Invasive Procedure
Over 25 years ago, French vets switched from the ‘ovariohysterectomy’, removing the ovaries and uterus, to the ‘ovariectomy’, removing just the ovaries. This is a less invasive procedure. The incision is smaller and much less tissue – only the two relatively small ovaries – is removed. By the later 1990s, all continental veterinary schools had switched to the ovariectomy as their neutering procedure of choice.
British vets worried that leaving the uterus intact would lead to increased womb infections later in life, but Dutch vets have shown conclusively that this is not the case. In the absence of female hormones, the uterus contacts down to a thin strand. Infection is only possible if female hormone drugs (progestogens) are given to the cat and there are virtually no medical reasons for this to be done. Cervical cancer and uterine cancer are both very rare in cats, so leaving these organs intact does not increase cancer risk.
After discussing the European results with well known professors such as the former head of surgery at Cambridge University’s vet school, we modified our procedures and now undertake the ovariectomy as the neutering procedure of choice. If, however, the uterus appears unhealthy, it is also removed and we perform the more extensive ovariohysterecomy. 
The procedure itself is straight forward. On arrival at the clinic, your cat is given a ‘pre-med’ consisting of a sedative and two forms of pain killer, one of which also has a sedative affect. During surgery, another pain killer is given. The incision is usually repaired with stitches under the skin and medical ‘superglue’ is added. She goes home later that day, together with non-steroid anti-inflammatory drops (pain killer) to give for several more days. Most cats want to return to normal activity within three days but, of course, outdoor cats should be kept indoors for a week after surgery.

Keyhole Surgery

‘Keyhole’ or ‘laparoscopic’ or ‘minimally invasive surgery’ is the normal for many human procedures (such as appendectomies or gall bladder removal). However, because cats don’t have interfering belly buttons, a feline ovariectomy can be carried out through a single small midline incision of approximately two to three centimeters, while keyhole surgery requires three incisions – one for carbon dioxide, one for the camera and one for surgery. At the present day, we don’t see any advantages to laparoscopic ovariectomies in cats.

When To Spay
We suggest spaying any time before the first season. This perpetuates the existing personality and is medically the best time to spay.
If you have any questions about any of these procedures, please telephone the clinic and speak with one of the nurses.

Nutrition for Your Healthy Cat

No one can say how long an individual cat will live. However, he/she is your cat, your faithful friend; you obviously want to have him/her with you as long as possible. 

It has been recognized by veterinary surgeons for some time that nutrition can play an important part in maintaining your cat's health and vitality. Certain nutrient changes are needed throughout your cat's life. What is right for a kitten can be harmful to the older cat.
Cats are natural carnivores, so they require a very special and different diet to that of other animals such as high levels of top quality protein and food enriched in taurine, an essential amino acid found in muscle meat only. Excess levels of magnesium are also required in all cats' diets to help prevent a number of urinary tract problems, which cats can develop.
There are a number of specially formulated premium foods, which have been specially formulated to ensure health growth and keep him/her healthy at each stage of her life. An example of the veterinary formulated diets is the Royal Canin diet which we can advise you on at vets. Our veterinary surgeon will be able to give you the advice of the appropriate diet for your kitten or cat. For a long time, vets and nutritionists have been recommending to feed commercially produced food; especially a premium food rather than homemade diets, which unless carefully formulated, can be potentially harmful for your cat.

Kittens - 
As a general guide, kittens require more calcium and phosphorus to help build strong bones; protein to help develop strong muscles, more calories for increased energy expenditure and fatty acids for a healthy coat, and a diet enriched with taurine an essential amino acid for cats. Kittens require more of these nutrients than mature cats do.
The pregnant and nursing queen
should be fed a diet almost identical to the kitten’s diet, as she is providing so much of the nourishment for the kittens at this time. Energy rich formulation will help to maintain her own body weight.
The control of the adult cat’s excessive nutrients is vital, so reducing the levels of nutrients than those of a kitten is vital. Carefully controlled levels of fatty acids for a healthy glossy coat, high-quality protein to maintain muscles, and sensible levels of calcium and phosphorus for strong bones and teeth. Excess levels of sodium and phosphorus should be controlled. It is also essential to avoid excess levels of magnesium, which can contribute to urinary tract problems, such as crystals or stones. These can pose very distressing and potentially life -threatening conditions.

The less active or weight prone cat –

Being overweight puts potentially dangerous stress on every bone, muscle and organ, including the heart in your cat's body.
A specially formulated fiber rich, calorie reduced diet is essential to help prevent obesity in some cats. Some cats are genetically predisposed to becoming overweight, and some neutered animals are also at risk from becoming obese.
Feeding an appropriate 'light' diet will help your cat to feel full and satisfied, and reduce the intake of calories at the same time. This will keep your cat happy and healthy, and stop you from feeding guilty about reducing the quantity of foods given. The other benefit is it also maintains all of the other essential nutrients required by an adult cat.

The Senior/Older Cat -  

As cats get older, the kidney functions often decline. An excessive intake of phosphorus can lead to further kidney damage, and too much salt can contribute to higher blood pressure, which may make heart or kidney problems worse. An increased level of fiber is necessary to prevent constipation. Some new diets which are easy to chew and gentle on your older cat's teeth and gums are also available.
A carefully controlled diet in for each of these nutrients is required for the older cat, to help keep your companion as long possible.

General feeding guide –

• When switching your cat to any new food, gradually introduce it over a 5-day period. Mix it with your cat's former food, gradually increasing the proportion until only the new food is being fed. 
• You can tell if your cat is the ideal weight when you can feel, but not see his/her ribs. To be sure of his/her ideal weight, consult the veterinary surgery. 
• Keep fresh water available at all times. 
• If you are switching from canned food to a dry food, expect your pet to drink a lot more water. Most commercially produced tinned food is made up of over 80%, water which provides a large amount of drinking water for your cat. 
• The best way to measure the quality of a pet food is to measure what goes in compared to what is passed out. Many inexpensive pet foods provide a lot of filler's which may make it look like a good value, but a lot of the food is not utilized by the animal and there is more to clean up afterwards. 
• If your pet refuses to eat for more than 48 hours, discuss the problem with our veterinary surgeon immediately. 
• If you are feeding a premium or commercially prepared pet food, it is not necessary to give any additional supplements; in fact, this may do more harm than good. 
• Most feeding guides on pet food are to be used as a guide only. Our veterinary surgery will advise you on the most appropriate amount for your cat.

Prescription Nutrition for Your Cat
We have over time become used to advances in medicine for ourselves and in changes in veterinary medicine for our animals. New drugs for treatment, the management of diseases, and new types of surgical procedures. An area which has become significant in its area of research in veterinary medicine is prescription nutrition. In fact, prescription nutrition for cats is known to have been researched as far back as 1948 in the United States by a vet called Dr. Mark Morris. He created the first prescription diet product, a discovery that has led to many different companies offering prescription diets for your pet, including Royal Canin, the brand that we recommend at our practice. Since then, prescription nutrition has grown to be an important component of veterinary medicine with innovative products that give sick and disease prone dogs and cats nutritional support during and after therapy. 

Prescription diets are only available through the veterinary surgeon and it is important that they are involved in the selection and monitoring of the diet, disease and your cat, so that the best prognosis can be achieved.

Different health problems require different forms of nutritional support. Researchers recognized the link between successful therapy and supportive nutrition years before researchers in human medicine reached the same conclusions. Through Royal Canin, we can ensure your pet receives the best nutritional support throughout each stage of their life.
A variety of formulas are available to support your cat including:

• Adverse reactions to foods 
• Cardiovascular disease 
• Diabetes 
• Gastro intestinal disease 
• Pancreatic disorders 
• Cancer care 
• Liver disorders 
• Kidney disease 
• Weight control 
• Colitis 
• Constipation 
• Dental health 
• Urolithiasis (bladder stones) 
• Urinary tract disease 
• Pre and post-surgical conditions 
• Gradually introduce the new food over a 5-10 day period, unless instructed otherwise by the veterinary surgeon. 
• Mix the new diet with your cat's former food, then gradually increasing the proportion until only the new food is being fed. 
• Do not supplement your cat's new food unless instructed otherwise by the veterinary surgeon. Do not feed treats, snacks, table scraps, leftovers, or any food other than that which the veterinary surgeon recommends. 
• Keep a clean bowl of fresh water available at all times. 
• Warm canned food to body temperature (but not any hotter), before feeding. 
• Hand feed the new diet for the first few days. 
• If your cat refuses to eat for more than 24 hours, discuss the problem with the veterinary surgeon immediately. 

If your cat is diagnosed as having a disease or nutrition related disorder, it is comforting to know that. In many cases, a change in diet really can help to manage and control the problem.

Help with switching your cat’s food. If the vet has recommended a change in your cat's food and he/she has been a creature of habit, you may need some help in switching to a new way of eating.
If your cat has trouble giving up his/her familiar food.
If you are still experiencing difficulties, please discuss these with the veterinary surgeon.

Cat Weight Control

Over 47% of cats are overweight. The definition of which is, when a pet’s weight is up to 15% above it's ideal weight, then it can be considered as being overweight. If it is more than 15% above it's ideal weight, then it is considered to be obese. 

What is the cause?

Weight gain in pets is normally a result of an increase in body fat. The most common cause is a pet eating too many calories (just like ourselves). We often like to treat our pets, but sometimes giving them "human" treats such as crisps and chocolate can contain up to half of their daily required calorie in-take. Too many calories combined with a lack of exercise can also exacerbate the problem. If more energy is being gained from food than is being used, the surplus will be stored as fat.
Other causes, include:

Medical disorders - sometimes weight gain is associated with a medical disorder, which may require investigations and or treatment - speak to the vet.
Neutering or spaying - pets, which have been neutered, have a higher risk of weight gain because of their altered metabolism. However, neutering has many other positive health benefits.
Age - Older pets are often less active and if so, require fewer calories.

How do I know if my cat is overweight?

The best thing to do is visit the veterinary practice regularly, and to have your cat assessed and weighed. Many practices offer pet weight control clinics as a free service, because they understand the importance of preventative health and your cats weight could, be associated with other health problems. Such problems include:

• Diabetes Mellitus 
• Heart disease 
• Skin disease 
• Arthritis or other joint problems 
• Breathing difficulties 
• An increased surgical risk 
• You cannot feel your cat's ribs 
• Loss of your cat's waist and more bulk around their hips 
• Slow to move and difficulty in walking 
• No energy and sleeps a lot 
• Short of breath 

How can I reduce my cat's weight without starving her?

Just reducing the amount of food your cat normally eats will usually fail, as your cat will become very hungry and will be begging for more food. The added problem is by decreasing the amount of their normal food, not only reduces the calorie content, but also reduces all of the other vital nutrients, such as protein, vitamins and minerals.
Fortunately, today, we have available to our pets special prescription diets which are carefully nutritionally balanced, yummy to eat, low in calories, available in canned and dry, and make the cat feel full with fiber. He/she will not continually badger you for more food (it is a pity that they have not produced one for people). The veterinary surgeon will be the best person to advise and support you through this process.

Useful tips while your cat is losing weight.

Work with your veterinary practice. We often provide free support and pet weight checks.
If we advise you to follow a particular health and weight program, do stick with it, so your cat will obtain the health benefits in the long term and you will have a happy, active cat.
Make every one in the family and neighborhood aware that your cat is on a weight control program and ask for their help. They could spoil a week's work with a few small titbits.
Do not overfeed the recommended amount. Always follow the vet’s advice, or follow the guide on the side of the pack.
Use an appropriate specially formulated food for weight loss. Many so-called "light foods" are only designed to prevent and maintain weight loss. They are not very effective at ensuring weight loss safely. Over the shortest period of time, speak to the vet, who will advise you.
Feed your overweight cat separately from the other pets in the house.
Keep your cat out of the room when you are eating or preparing the families meals, to avoid them begging and you giving into temptation.
Reward your cat with cuddles, plenty of strokes or playing games rather than with food. If you feel you have to give your pet a treat, hand feed him/her a small proportion of his/her diet food, or ask the vet about special prescription treats, which are low in calories.
Encourage regular moderate exercise to improve your cat's health and well- being, and help control her weight. Cat toys are a good investment. Check with the vet if you are planning a new health regime.
Ensure your pet has a regular weight check at the veterinary practice to closely monitor his/her weight loss and obtain continued support and advice.
When your cat has achieved his/her goal, continue to feed your cat an appropriate lower calorie maintenance food to help prevent the extra weight returning. You have done extremely well; do not undo all of your hard work.
It is an achievement
when you and your cat have achieved your goal. You will both benefit from a whole new lease of life, your cat will feel happy, healthy and fit again, and you will have your bouncy kitten-like cat again. Well done.

General Information

Rabbits make a good alternative to a dog or cat. They are usually not aggressive, do not have to be walked, and can be trained to use a litterbox or tray. Their average life-span is 8-12 years old, and they reach breeding age at 6 months of age. Early spaying and neutering at 4-6 months of age is recommended to decrease both medical and behavioral problems. Rabbits are known for their easy breeding abilities; pregnancy lasts about 30 days and the average size litter is 4-10 kits.
Proper handling of rabbits is important. Rabbits have a lightweight skeleton compared to most animals, especially hutch-bound pets that may have osteoporosis. Their powerful back legs allow them to kick vigorously. If held improperly, a swift kick can easily cause a rabbit to break or dislocate its spine. Sadly, in the worst cases, therapy may not be possible. When carrying your pet, always support its rear end. If the rabbit struggles, it should be placed down immediately, given time to quiet itself, and picked up a few minutes later. NEVER pick up your rabbit by its ears. Have your veterinary surgeon show you the proper way to restrain and carry your rabbit.

Anatomical interests

Rabbits have large ears, illustrating their excellent sense of hearing. The ears also serve as a way for the rabbit to regulate its body temperature. The ears contain large veins which are often used for drawing blood for diagnostic testing.
Rabbits have a digestive tract that is adapted for digesting the large amount of fiber that is required in their diets. They are coprophagic - adapted to re-ingest a special portion of the diet (caecotroph), in order to digest food properly.
Rabbits have two pairs of upper incisor teeth (the second pair is hidden behind the first).
Like rodents, rabbit teeth grow throughout the pet's life and dental therapy will be required if the diet does not necessitate enough grinding by the teeth.

Selecting your pet

Rabbits can often be purchased at pet stores or through breeders. Ideally, select a young animal. The eyes and nose should be clear and free of any discharge that might indicate a respiratory infection. It should be curious and inquisitive. The rabbit should not be thin or emaciated. Check for the presence of wetness around the anus, which might indicate diarrhea or an inability to ingest caecotrophs. Also check for the presence of parasites such as fleas and ear mites (ear mites cause the production of waxy black exudate in the ears). If possible, examine the rabbit's mouth for broken or overgrown incisors (front teeth), discolored gums (they should be light pink), and any obvious sores. Inquire as to whether the rabbit has been spayed or neutered; most have not been at the time of purchase. Finally, inquire as to any guarantee of health the seller is offering.

The first veterinary visit

Your rabbit should be examined by a qualified veterinary surgeon within 48 hours of purchase. Make sure the veterinary surgeon has experience in treating rabbits. The veterinary surgeon should discuss housing, proper diet, and appropriate toys for the rabbit as well as advising on vaccination against myxomatosis and viral hemorrhagic disease.

What type of cage does my rabbit require?

Many rabbits are housed outside in a hutch with ready access to a grass run. It is a fallacy that they must be brought in over winter; however, they must have a well-sheltered warm hutch. Some people like to house their rabbit inside and they can make good household pets. If they are allowed loose, this should be supervised, or items that are dangerous to the rabbit or precious to the owner should be moved out of harm's way - they love to chew and can be very destructive to housing and furniture. There is always a chance of injury, such as chewing on an electrical cord. Like cats, they quickly learn to use a litterbox.
A small dog or cat kennel can be used as an indoor hutch. Wire cages are not recommended as the floor may cause foot damage. A concealed 'hiding' area in the cage allows the rabbit to feel secure. Height is also important as the rabbit must be able to stand upright. Whether kept in or out, the rabbit must have a lot of space and free space to exercise each day.

Does my rabbit need bedding in his cage?

The floor should be covered in a thick layer of paper (newspaper, shredded paper or recycled pet bedding paper), hay or straw. Sawdust or shavings should be avoided as they may contain chemicals that react with urine. The sleeping chamber should be lined with large amounts of hay, straw, or (preferably) shredded paper. Wire floors should be avoided.
What else do I need in the cage?

Place the litterbox and ceramic or steel food and water bowls in the hutch. Alternatively, the water may be provided in a bottle - this may reduce contamination of the water.

Anything else I need to know?

Rabbits are very sensitive to heat stroke. It is critical to keep their environmental temperature at or below 26°C (80°F), and make sure their 'house' is well ventilated.

RABBITS HAVE EVOLVED TO EAT GRASS!
In the wild rabbits spend many hours chewing grass. This is a tough fibrous material that also contains abrasive silicates. In winter, they consume dried grass that they have stored in their burrows. All year round they will top up their diet with dark green leafy weeds as well as fruit and roots that they come across.

In captivity, we have developed commercial rations that are low in fiber and minerals and high in protein. Rabbits enjoy these diets and grow quickly. However, they are calorie-rich and don’t require nearly as much chewing/grinding as the natural diet. Even if grass and hay are provided, the rabbit will preferentially eat the wrong foods resulting in dietary imbalances and deficiencies.
It is therefore best to keep the diet as natural as possible:
In the morning provide large quantities of the following:

1. Grass. This should be provided as free access to 'grazing areas' or freshly picked/cut grass. Grass clippings are probably best avoided as they tend to ferment.
2. Hay. Fresh meadow hay should be given. This may be obtained from local stables, although good quality timothy hays are available via pet shops and veterinary clinics. Quality of hay should be judged by smell. If it is dry, dusty and smells bad, you can’t blame the rabbit for not eating it!
3. Greens. Mixed quantities of dandelions and dark green leaves (cabbage, kale, spring greens, carrot tops, etc.) should be given. Lettuce should be avoided.

If necessary, then in the evening a small amount of a commercial ration may be provided. One should be selected that contains as much fiber as possible. Extruded pellets may be best.
The following day replenish hay, grass and greens in the morning, but do not give further concentrate until the last ration has been totally consumed. While some rations are formulated to avoid selective feeding, others contain many different components – do not give more until ALL is eaten! Remember that no concentrate diet provides adequate wear on the teeth.
Fresh water should always be given.
There is generally no need to provide extra vitamins or minerals, though a vitamin D3 supplement may be useful for house rabbits that do not receive direct sunlight. There is some belief that supplementing calcium and Vitamin D may lead to bladder stones and it is best remembered that if a good quality complete diet is given, then supplements are unnecessary.
Treats are always useful for training purposes. Chocolate and sugary treats are best avoided as dental caries have been recorded. Apple, pear (and other fibrous fruits) and carrots are ideal treats.
Remember that carrots are not a staple of any rabbit’s diet.
Wooden chews and sticks are fun for the rabbit but do not provide any additional nutrition so as to preventing a potential dental problem.

Should small mammals be neutered?

Aside from birth control there may be other issues:
Rabbits
Males
Male rabbits do not normally require castrating unless:

1. They are to be kept with entire females (see below).
2. They are kept with other males and there is fighting – in these cases, castrate all the males!
3. There is sexual, territorial or dominant behavior towards other pets or humans.

Females
Female rabbits should always be spayed, unless required for breeding as one
uterine adenocarcinoma (malignant womb cancer) is very common in those over five years old.
One female may often become very territorial and aggressive, especially during false pregnancies.
The ideal combination is a spayed doe and an entire buck.

Guinea Pigs
Spaying female guinea pigs is a lot more difficult than spaying rabbits. Therefore, it is more appropriate to castrate males when keeping mixed groups.

Older does may be prone to ovarian cysts that may result in the need for spaying later in life. However, this does not appear to be common enough to advise prophylactic surgery.

Rats
Female rats are very prone to mammary tumors. Spaying female rats BEFORE their first season is an effective means of reducing the incidence of these tumors.

Other small rodents
In general, castration is simpler than spaying. However, it is often more appropriate and cost effective to sex offspring as early as possible and maintain separate male and female colonies.
Some hamsters are not social and should be kept singly in any case.

Dacryocystitis refers to infection and inflammation of the tear duct. It is a common problem in the rabbit and is often a primary reason for presentation to the veterinary clinic.
Although the main signs are caused by a bacterial infection, there are usually much deeper underlying causes. Dacryocystitis refers to infection and inflammation of the tear duct. It is a common problem in the rabbit and is often a primary reason for presentation to the veterinary clinic.
Although the main signs are caused by a bacterial infection, there are usually much deeper underlying causes.

How is dacryocystitis diagnosed?

Clinical signs are often enough - a white purulent discharge from eyes and/or nose. This often sticks to the fur, causing hair loss and may cause skin ulceration in these areas. The condition may be uni or bi-lateral. If in doubt, pressing the skin just under the eye results in pus being squeezed up the lachrymal duct and onto the eye surface. The opening to the lachrymal duct is generally large (though may become constricted in chronic cases) and is found in the lower eyelid, just superficial to the third eyelid.

What are the underlying causes?
Although rare underlying causes include such problems as foreign bodies, the vast majority of cases result from dental disease.
The lachrymal duct is very tortuous in the rabbit (this combined with the solid nature of rabbit pus explains the frequent blockages of this duct) and runs over both molar and incisor roots.
Dental disease resulting in tooth root infection and osteomyelitis of the surrounding bone will, therefore, frequently involve the tear duct.

What diagnostic investigations are required?
Given the major underlying causes, it is essential that all cases receive a full dental investigation including radiography of the skull.
In some cases, contrast media can be placed into the tear duct allowing the site of blockage to be determined.

How is dacryocystitis treated?
Wherever possible, underlying dental problems should be corrected. If the incisor roots are the cause, then these teeth may be removed.
With the frequent finding of osteomyelitis, it is important that medium to long-term systemic antibiosis and analgesia (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are often effective) are instigated.
Unlike many rabbit abscesses, tear duct infections do lend themselves to regular flushing. Cannulae may be inserted into the opening of the tear duct and anti-microbial solutions may be instilled into the duct. Dilute pus may be seen exiting the nose. In some cases, the duct may be so blocked that the solution will not flush through. Repeated flushing may be successful especially after use of systemic drugs. Instillation of proteolytic enzymes may also assist in breaking down solid pus.
Antibiotic-containing eye and skin creams/gel may also be used to reduce periocular irritation.
Therapy is likely to be prolonged and recurrences of dacryocystitis are common, owing to the nature of the underlying dental disease.

How is dacryocystitis diagnosed?

Clinical signs are often enough - a white purulent discharge from eyes and/or nose. This often sticks to the fur, causing hair loss and may cause skin ulceration in these areas. The condition may be uni or bi-lateral. If in doubt, pressing the skin just under the eye results in pus being squeezed up the lachrymal duct and onto the eye surface. The opening to the lachrymal duct is generally large (though may become constricted in chronic cases) and is found in the lower eyelid, just superficial to the third eyelid.

What are the underlying causes?
Although rare underlying causes include such problems as foreign bodies, the vast majority of cases result from dental disease.
The lachrymal duct is very tortuous in the rabbit (this combined with the solid nature of rabbit pus explains the frequent blockages of this duct) and runs over both molar and incisor roots.
Dental disease resulting in tooth root infection and osteomyelitis of the surrounding bone will, therefore, frequently involve the tear duct.

What diagnostic investigations are required?
Given the major underlying causes, it is essential that all cases receive a full dental investigation including radiography of the skull.
In some cases, contrast media can be placed into the tear duct allowing the site of blockage to be determined.

How is dacryocystitis treated?
Wherever possible, underlying dental problems should be corrected. If the incisor roots are the cause, then these teeth may be removed.
With the frequent finding of osteomyelitis, it is important that medium to long-term systemic antibiosis and analgesia (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are often effective) are instigated.
Unlike many rabbit abscesses, tear duct infections do lend themselves to regular flushing. Cannulae may be inserted into the opening of the tear duct and anti-microbial solutions may be instilled into the duct. Dilute pus may be seen exiting the nose. In some cases, the duct may be so blocked that the solution will not flush through. Repeated flushing may be successful especially after use of systemic drugs. Instillation of proteolytic enzymes may also assist in breaking down solid pus.
Antibiotic-containing eye and skin creams/gel may also be used to reduce periocular irritation.
Therapy is likely to be prolonged and recurrences of dacryocystitis are common, owing to the nature of the underlying dental disease.

What are abscesses?

Abscesses are one of the most common and difficult clinical problems in rabbits. They can range from open sores in the skin with white oozing pus to invasive internal lesions. Internal abscesses may go undiagnosed until they cause death of the animal and they are found on post mortem examination. Abscesses often relate to dental problems, such as tooth root abscesses. Sometimes, pus is seen coming from the openings of the tear duct – these do not reflect eye infection but deep infection or abscessation of the tooth roots.
What causes abscesses?
The organisms generally causing these abscesses are often Pasteurella spp or Staphylococcus spp. Both can be found in healthy rabbits, particularly Pasteurella in the nasal passages and Staphylococcus on the skin. If the immune system is impaired the bacteria may take over, causing an abscess. This is a very simplified version of the events happening when an abscess forms. It may be that there are other predisposing factors, such as bone and tooth abnormalities which then lead to dental abscesses or poor ventilation which sets off respiratory problems. Regard to environmental conditions, diet and general health may, therefore, assist in prevention of abscess formation.
How are abscesses treated?
The main problem is that once an abscess occurs, it is very difficult to treat. Antibiotics find it difficult to penetrate the middle of an abscess. This means that in many cases surgery is the optimal therapy – relatively easy in a skin abscess but far more difficult in a tooth root abscess or one throughout the abdominal cavity. Unlike cats and dogs, rabbit pus is generally solid. This means that simply opening it and draining it will not be successful as the pus will not drain! Inadequate drainage or failure to remove the underlying causes results in an abscess that continuously recurs.

Where curative surgery is not possible then a range of surgeries have been attempted to control the bacteria and reduce the abscess. These include implantation of antibiotic-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate beads or antibiotic-containing dental cements. Potassium hydroxide paste has also been used as have more radical approaches, including maggot therapy! Manuka Honey too may be used, however none of these are used alone but in combination with surgical debridement. In short, the plethora of different techniques illustrates how none are totally successful in all cases.
In some recurrent cases, especially dental abscesses, there is often no alternative other than 'palliative' care. This will involve regular opening and curettage of the abscess, dental therapy and continuous systemic antibiosis (to reduce risks of septicaemia) and analgesia (non-steroidal anti-inflammatories are appropriate). Some of these cases may continue in this manner for several years and maintain a good quality lifestyle.
Sadly, therapy is not always successful and if pain cannot be controlled or if expensive long-term management cannot be continued then euthanasia may be the only alternative

What are some of the common diseases of pet rabbits?
Common conditions of pet rabbits include snuffles, gut stasis, abnormal caecotrophs, parasites, dental disease, uterine cancer, and sore hocks.

What are the signs of these diseases?

'Snuffles' is the lay term given to upper respiratory infections. These may be related to pasteurella bacteria but not always. Most common clinical signs are related to the eyes (discharge, redness, squinting) or nose (sneezing, discharge). Often the eyes and nose are affected at the same time. Bacteria can infect other areas of the body as well. Ear infections (resulting in a head tilt) and abscesses (seen as lumps on the body), are also seen. Sudden death from septicaemia (infection in the blood) is rare but can occur. While some infections are mild and easily treated, others are much more difficult with dental disease and allergy/irritation being frequent underlying causes making management very difficult.
Gut stasis is extremely common in rabbits. In the past, this has been referred to as 'hairballs' as large bodies of food and hair may accumulate in the stomach. However, rather than representing over-grooming or a physical obstruction, it usually demonstrates gut hypomotility. The most common reason for this is pain. Dental, spinal, abdominal or post-operative pain will all cause the problem. Some cases may be dietary - related with low fiber diets being at fault causing changes in gut pH and altered gut flora. Some may result from disease of the nerves to the gut. A lethargic and/or anorexic rabbit with reduced or absent fecal pellets should arouse suspicion. Radiography of the abdomen is confirmatory and will distinguish from true intestinal impactions.
Another manifestation of gut motility changes is altered caecotrophy. This is where the caecotroph (the 'edible' fecal paste produced then re-ingested by the rabbit) builds up around the hindquarters. Low fiber diets and pain are frequent causes of this syndrome, as are problems that cause the rabbit difficulty in turning and preventing the caecotroph - e.g. obesity, cramped hutches, back problems, and molar spurs.
Therapy for gut stasis and caecotroph alterations involves correction of the underlying cause and pain relief. Agents to stimulate gut motility may also be used along with fluid therapy and assisted feeding of the sick rabbit.
Internal parasites are a rare cause of disease in pet rabbits. Ectoparasites are, however, very common. Fleas, ticks and fur or ear mites can all cause problems. Anti-parasitic agents are available and the need for prophylaxis should be discussed with your vet.
Rabbit teeth grow continuously through life. This applies to both incisors (front teeth) and molars (back teeth) as they are adapted to continuously grind high fiber foods. Failure to provide adequate fiber or calcium in the diet predisposes them to dental disease as teeth continue to grow in spite of not being worn down. Problems may result from molar spurs sticking into the tongue and/ or cheeks or from root pain. Short-nosed breeds are at greater risk of dental disease due to molar 'overcrowding'. Incisor overgrowth is sometimes seen due to jaw malformations or injury, but usually reflects molar overgrowth. It is extremely difficult to adequately examine the molars in the conscious rabbit and radiography may be required to diagnoses dental disease. Therapy requires anesthesia and the grinding or clipping of overgrown teeth. Dietary corrections will slow down progression of disease but, once started, it is likely that lifelong dental management will be required.

Like dogs and cats, female rabbits should be spayed early in life (by 4-6 months of age). Whereas un-spayed female dogs and cats often develop malignant breast cancer, and un-spayed female ferrets die of fatal anemia, un-spayed female rabbits often develop uterine cancer. The type of cancer is called uterine adenocarcinoma. This is a relatively common condition amongst older female rabbits. It should be suspected whenever an un-spayed female rabbit becomes sick. Diagnosis may sometimes be difficult and exploratory surgery may be needed. Ovariohysterectomy is curative as long as the cancer has not already spread.
'Sore hocks' is a condition that is fairly unique to rabbits. The hocks are essentially the ankles of rabbits. When a rabbit is sitting, which it does most of the time, its hocks are in contact with the floor of its cage. Wire-floored cages are often to blame. However, other substrates that allow retention of urine or are directly caustic may also be problems. Obesity may result in increased pressure on the hocks and giant breeds also have increased problems. Hair from these regions should never be clipped as it is the main protection. Therapy involves antibiosis coupled with correction of underlying causes and foot dressings.

How can I tell if my rabbit is sick?

Signs of disease in rabbits may be specific for a certain disease. Most commonly, however, signs are vague and non-specific, such as a rabbit with anorexia (lack of appetite) and lethargy, which can be seen with many diseases. ANY deviation from normal should be a cause for concern and requires immediate evaluation by your veterinary surgeon.

Why has my veterinary surgeon prescribed this medicine?

Ivermectin is used for control of parasites in rabbits, rodents, birds and ferrets. It is used for control of roundworms and external parasites such as mites and lice.  Your veterinary surgeon will advise a treatment program for your pet.

How do I give this medication?

1. Give this medication to your pet as directed by your veterinary surgeon.  READ THE LABEL CAREFULLY.
2. Apply this medicine onto the skin on the back of the neck and down the back.
3. DO NOT give your pet more medicine than directed and DO NOT give more often than directed.
4. Have a reminder system in place to indicate when the next dose should be given.
5. Wash your hands after handling the medication.  
6. In case of accidental ingestion, seek medical advice immediately and show the package, leaflet or label to the physician.

What if I miss giving a dose?
Give the dose as soon as possible.  If it is almost time for the next dose, skip the missed dose, and continue with the regular schedule.  Do not give your pet two doses at once.

How do I store and dispose of this medicine?
Keep this medicine out of reach of children.  Store this medicine in a cool, dry place at less than 25°C.  Store away from heat and direct sunlight.  Do not store this medicine in the bathroom, near the kitchen sink or in damp places.  The medicine may break down if exposed to heat or moisture.  Wrap empty packaging in tissue paper and dispose in your household waste.

Potential side effects

1. DO NOT use on other animals. Ivermectin may cause a shock-like reaction (anaphylactic shock) and death in dogs, particularly Collies, Old English Sheepdogs and related breeds.  Serious reactions have also been seen in turtles and tortoises.
2. Although a drug has potential side effects, it does not mean that there is necessarily a high risk of any of these occurring.  Tell your veterinary surgeon if you think your pet may be pregnant or is nursing young.
3. Do not use this medicine on animals less than 16 weeks of age.
4. Other side effects may occur. If you notice anything unusual, contact your veterinary surgeon.

Possible drug interactions

1. Make sure to tell your veterinary surgeon what other medication you are giving to your pet.
2. Quite often your veterinary surgeon may prescribe two different medications, and a drug interaction may be anticipated.  In this case, your veterinary surgeon may vary the dose and/or monitor your pet more closely.

Contact your veterinary surgeon if your pet experiences any unusual reactions when different medications are given together.

Rabbit - Infectious Diseases
Myxomatosis
This is caused by the Myxoma virus which is widely distributed in the wild rabbit population. You might argue that your rabbit never comes into direct contact with animals from the wild and so does not need vaccination. The problem is that the virus is carried by rabbit fleas and mosquitoes so the disease can be passed on without direct contact. The incubation period is two days to a week, and the first sign is the development of puffy eyelids and a purulent (pus-producing) conjunctivitis. Swelling under the skin extends around the eyes, ears and genital region. Death is usually 18 days to three weeks after infection but occasionally animals will survive and signs regress over three months.

A milder form may be seen in partially immune rabbits. In these the symptoms are solid masses. They often appear as lumps over the ears and head. They may be single or multiple. In some cases, lumps may appear on the rest of the body. With proper nursing, they will normally survive but the masses may take over six months to disappear.
Pregnant animals should not be vaccinated, nor rabbits under six weeks old. Occasionally there is a local reaction at the injection site but compared with the lethal infection seen of many unvaccinated animals, this is insignificant.
In the UK, Intervet has produced Nobivac Myxo, which is a living vaccine prepared from a related virus, the Shope papilloma virus, which does not cause clinical disease. Rabbits should be re-vaccinated every six months.

Viral hemorrhagic disease
This was first noticed in China many years ago but now has an almost world-wide distribution and is seen more and more in the UK. Viral hemorrhagic disease is caused by a calicivirus and, although the incubation period is up to three days, animals may die suddenly without any clinical signs. If there are signs they include anorexia (not eating), pyrexia (fever) apathy and prostration. There may be convulsions and coma, dyspnoea (difficulty breathing), a mucoid foaming at the mouth or a bloody nasal discharge. Some animals survive this acute phase but die a few weeks later of liver disease and jaundice.
Given the horrendous death experienced by affected rabbits, every rabbit should be vaccinated annually.
In the UK, several vaccines are available that contain inactivated hemorrhagic disease virus (VHD). Rabbits should be vaccinated at 2½-3 months of age. Annual boosters are recommended.

Encephalitozoon cuniculi

This disease often causes a chronic latent condition in rabbits, with the active disease being characterized by neurological signs such as weakness, head tilt (torticollis), paralysis and even seizures. It may also cause kidney failure (the organism is shed via the urine), lens changes, and heart disease. It may also be carried by rabbits with no clinical signs!
Fenbendazole has been used to treat this condition, though it is often too far advanced for therapy to succeed. Sadly, post-mortem examination is often the only reliable way to confirm diagnosis. Encephalitozoonosis has been described in a few cases in people but its significance is not really known. This underlines the importance of always washing your hands after handling any animal and particularly before eating or preparing food.

Pet First Aid

When your pet has an emergency, being prepared is very important. We cannot stress enough that you SHOULD NOT get online during a pet emergency or when your pet is seriously ill. In an emergency, first aid is not a substitute for veterinary treatment. However, before you are able to get your pet to a veterinarian, knowing some basic first aid can help. Always seek veterinary care following first-aid attempts. 

Bite Wounds

Approach the pet carefully to avoid getting bitten. Muzzle the animal. Check the wound for contamination or debris. If significant debris is present, then clean the wound with large amounts of saline or balanced electrolyte solution. If these are not available, then regular water may be used. Wrap large open wounds to keep them clean. Apply pressure to profusely bleeding wounds. Do not use a tourniquet. Wear gloves when possible.
Bite wounds often become infected and need professional care. Call your veterinarian.

Bleeding

Apply firm, direct pressure over the bleeding area until the bleeding stops. Hold the pressure for at least 10 straight minutes (continually releasing the pressure to check the wound will hamper the clotting). Avoid bandages that cut off circulation.
Call your veterinarian immediately.

Breathing Stops

Check to see if the animal is choking on a foreign object. If an animal is not breathing, place it on a firm surface with its left side up. Check for a heartbeat by listening at the area where the elbow touches the chest. If you hear a heartbeat but not breathing, close the animal’s mouth and breathe directly into its nose--not the mouth--until the chest expands. Repeat 12 to 15 times per minute. If there is no pulse, apply heart massage at the same time. The heart is located in the lower half of the chest, behind the elbow of the front left leg. Place one hand below the heart to support the chest. Place the other hand over the heart and compress gently. To massage the hearts of cats and other tiny pets, compress the chest with the thumb and forefingers of one hand. Apply heart massage 80-120 times per minute for larger animals and 100-150 per minute for smaller ones. Alternate heart massage with breathing.
Please note: Even in the hands of well-trained veterinary health professionals, the success of resuscitation is very low overall. Success may be slightly higher in the cases of drowning or electrical shock.
Call your veterinarian immediately.

Burns

(Chemical, electrical, or heat including from a heating pad) symptoms: singed hair, blistering, swelling, redness of skin. Flush the burn immediately with large amounts of cool, running water. Apply an ice pack for 15-20 minutes. Do not place an ice pack directly on the skin. Wrap the pack in a light towel or other cover. If the animal has large quantities of dry chemicals on its skin, brush them off. Water may activate some dry chemicals.
Call your veterinarian immediately.

Choking

Symptoms include difficulty breathing, excessive pawing at the mouth, blue lips and tongue. Be sure to protect yourself as well as the animal, as the pet will likely be frantic and may be more likely to bite. If the pet can still partially breathe, it’s best to keep the animal calm and get to a veterinarian as quickly as possible. Look in to the mouth to see if a foreign object in the throat is visible. If you can, clear the airway by removing the object with pliers or tweezers, being careful not to push it farther down the throat. If it is lodged too deep or if the pet collapses, then place your hands on both sides of the animal’s rib cage and apply firm, quick pressure. Or place the animal on its side and strike the side of the rib cage firmly with the palm of your hand three or four times. Repeat this procedure until the object is dislodged or you arrive at the veterinarian’s office.
Call your veterinarian immediately.

Diarrhea

Withhold food for 12-24 hours, but not water. Sometimes pets that appear to be straining are sore from diarrhea rather than from constipation. Your veterinarian can help you decide which it is and what will help. Trying at-home treatments without knowing the real cause can just make things worse.
Call your veterinarian.

Fractures

Symptoms include pain, inability to use a limb, or limb at an odd angle. Muzzle the pet and look for bleeding. If you can control bleeding without causing more injury, then do so. Watch for signs of shock. DO NOT TRY TO SET THE FRACTURE by pulling or tugging on the limb. Transport the pet to the veterinarian immediately, supporting the injured part as best you can.

Heatstroke

Symptoms include rapid or labored breathing, vomiting, high body temperature, collapse. Place the animal in a tub of cool water, or gently soak the animal with a garden hose or wrap it in a cool, wet towel. Do not overcool the animal. Stop cooling when rectal temperature reaches 103 degrees Fahrenheit.
Call veterinarian immediately.

Poisoning

Symptoms include vomiting, convulsions, diarrhea, salivation, weakness, depression, pain. Record what the pet ingested and how much. Immediately call your veterinarian or poison control center. Do not induce vomiting. In case of toxins or chemicals on the skin from oils, paints, insecticides and other contact irritants, request directions on if and how to wash the toxin off.

Seizures

Symptoms include salivation, loss of control of urine or stool, violent muscle twitching, loss of consciousness. Move the pet away from any objects that could be harmful during the seizure. Use a blanket for padding and protection. Do not put yourself at risk by restraining the pet during the seizure. Time the seizure. They usually last only 2 to 3 minutes. Afterwards, keep the animal calm and quiet.
Call your veterinarian immediately.

Shock

Symptoms include irregular breathing, dilated pupils. Shock may occur as a result of a serious injury or fright. Keep the animal gently restrained, quiet, and warm, with the lower body elevated.
Call your veterinarian immediately.

Vomiting

Withhold food for 12-24 hours. Give the pet ice cubes for two hours after vomiting stops, then slowly increase the amount of water and foods given over a 24-hour period.
Call your veterinarian.
If you need to muzzle your pet, use a strip of soft cloth, rope, necktie, or nylon stocking. Wrap around the nose, under the chin and tie behind the ears. Care must be taken when handling weak or injured pets. Even normally docile pets will bite when in pain. Allow the pet to pant after handling by loosening or removing the muzzle. Do not use a muzzle in case of vomiting. Cats and small pets may be difficult to muzzle. A towel placed around the head will help control small pets.
If your pet can’t walk, a door, board, blanket, or floor mat can be used as a stretcher to transport injured or weak animals.
Straining to Eliminate Straining is a frequent and sometimes exaggerated effort to have a bowel movement or to urinate. 
It is often difficult to tell if the pet is having trouble urinating or defecating. Most owners think their pet is constipated when they first notice them straining. Straining produced by constipation may be identical to straining produced by a blocked urethra, diarrhea or an inflamed colon. Therefore, treatment of an assumed cause of straining may be the opposite of what is actually needed. 
In cats, straining is often indicative of urinary tract inflammation. Cats sometimes develop a condition called feline lower urinary tract disease in which the bladder becomes inflamed due to an unknown cause.  This can also sometimes be accompanied by tiny crystals in their urine. When there are too many crystals, they can plug the urethra (the tube that empties urine from the bladder) and prevent the bladder from emptying – this is a life-threatening emergency! The bladder becomes distended and the pet strains to relieve itself. Urethral obstructions are more common in male cats, while both males and females can be afflicted with urinary tract inflammation. Without help, this pet may be in critical condition within 12 hours. True urinary tract infections are quite rare in male cats. Dogs may also have obstructed urinary tracts due to stones, tumors or inflammation. 

 
Fainting/Dizziness (Syncope) Fainting is the sudden loss of consciousness or a sudden and marked weakness. It may be associated with numerous medical conditions and can be caused by anything from low blood sugar and neurological diseases to severe heart disease.  What to Do - Immediately position the pet with the head down and the hind quarters elevated. This will improve brain blood flow.  Cover the pet with a blanket to preserve body heat. If the pet vomits, make sure he or she does not inhale any of the vomitus into his/her lungs by keeping the head down.  Seek veterinary attention. 

Difficult Birth

Puppies are born 59 to 65 days after mating.  The cat gestation period is similar at 63 to 65 days. At the beginning of labor, the contractions may be infrequent, weak, or incomplete. The female may continue for up to 3 hours before a veterinary examination is necessary as long as she does not seem to be ill or in undue pain. If the contractions are frequent, regular, strong, and no young is produced in 15 to 30 minutes, the pet should be taken to a veterinarian. A dark green vaginal discharge called lochia should be followed within 5 to 10 minutes by puppy or kitten, but only before the first one.

Cats can take up to 24 hours to complete the birthing process, while most dogs have completed the process within 4 to 6 hours.
About two out of three cases of difficult birth (known as dystocia) that need to be seen by a veterinarian will need to have an emergency C-section performed. It is good practice to know long before the due date where your local veterinary emergency facility is, and when and if they can perform a C-section. C-sections are risky and expensive surgeries and careful consideration should be given to the decision to breed your pet or not. X-rays taken after the 42nd day of gestation can show how many babies will be born. This will allow you to know when the mother is done giving birth.
 
Reddish to brownish vaginal discharge can continue for several weeks after a normal birth. If the mother is eating normally and is normally active, this isn’t a problem. If she becomes lethargic, stops eating or acts ill, prompt veterinary attention is needed.
Some new mothers can experience a condition called eclampsia in which their blood calcium levels drop dangerously low. This is due to the large amount of calcium secreted in milk for the newborns. Dogs with eclampsia experience severe muscle tremors, difficulty walking and seizures. Immediate veterinary care is needed if your dog is showing any of these signs. Eclampsia can happen anytime around birth, but is most common during peak milk production (2 to 4 weeks after birth).

Veterinary Information Network 
A US pet information site
Contains a lot of very detailed information on health problems in pets
Senior Cats with Aging Kidneys
Kidney insufficiency (CRF)
This award winning and comprehensive website was created by a pet owner just like you who owned and treated her own cats with kidney insufficiency (CRF). It is an invaluable resource to learn how you can manage this very common disorder in senior kitties and provide quality life for years to come
British Small Animal Veterinary Association
The professional body of vets in small animal practices
Includes a site for pet owners
DEFRA PETS Scheme
Up to date information on the PETS travel scheme
Very useful if you are planning on travelling overseas with your pet - also see our Pet Travel section on our "Services" tab 
Feline Advisory Bureau
The prime organization promoting the health and welfare of cats
A must for any cat owner
Plants Toxic to Animals  
Plants are safe to keep in your home
A searchable database which allows you to choose which plants are safe to keep in your home with your furry family
Indoor Pet Initiative-
Learn how to provide a stimulating and enriched environment
Whether it is the desert heat, an apartment home, or desire to provide as much safety as possible, many of us choose to keep our pets indoors on a regular basis. Explore this excellent website to learn how to provide a stimulating and enriched environment for your indoor cat or dog
Cat Health Topics
Take care of your cat
This beautiful and informative website helps you learn just what it means to take care of your cat in the best way possible
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
The governing body of the veterinary profession in the UK
Information about professional conduct, and working as a veterinary surgeon or a veterinary nurse. Also a "Find a Vet" facility 
Behavior topics  
Advice on a variety of behavioral problems
Founded by Brian Kilcommons and Sharon Wilson, best-selling authors and recognized experts on animal training and behavior, this site is a terrific resource for advice on a variety of behavioral problems. If you want to learn more about feline house-soiling, barking dogs, aggression, or any other behavioral problem, have a look
Frontline TopSpot by Merial 
Flea and tick control
Sponsored by the makers of Frontline TopSpot for flea and tick control, this site has basic information about fleas and ticks as well as TopSpot questions and answers
Vetinfo
A US pet information site
Contains a lot of very detailed information on health problems in pets
VetULike
A UK site for pet information
An excellent source of pet care advice